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<title>Chargaff-Regeln</title>

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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Chargaff-Regeln</h1>

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Die Chargaff-Regeln beschreiben die <a href="Basenpaarung" class="mw-redirect" title="Basenpaarung">Basenpaarung</a> doppelsträngiger <a href="DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eigenschaften">Eigenschaften</h2></div>

Die Chargaff-Regeln wurden von 1952 bis 1968 von <a href="Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a> aufgestellt.<a href="#cite_note-Elson1952-1">[1]</a> Sie umfassen die Parität (gleiche Anzahl) von <a href="Nukleinbase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nukleinbase">Nukleinbasen</a> auf beiden DNA-Strängen zwischen <a href="Purine" title="Purine">Purinen</a> und <a href="Pyrimidine" title="Pyrimidine">Pyrimidinen</a> und die Parität zwischen <a href="Adenin" title="Adenin">Adenin</a> und <a href="Thymin" title="Thymin">Thymin</a> bzw. <a href="Guanin" title="Guanin">Guanin</a> und <a href="Cytosin" title="Cytosin">Cytosin</a>.

Die Chargaff-Regeln besitzen eine Gültigkeit für <a href="Eukaryot" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryot">eukaryotische</a> <a href="Chromosom" title="Chromosom">Chromosomen</a>, <a href="Bakteriell" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakteriell">bakterielle</a> Chromosomen, Genome von doppelsträngigen <a href="DNA-Virus" title="DNA-Virus">DNA-Viren</a> und <a href="Archaeen" title="Archaeen">archaeische</a> Chromosomen.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Sie gelten auch für <a href="MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a> und DNA von <a href="Plastiden" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastiden">Plastiden</a>. Für einzelsträngige DNA-Viren oder <a href="RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA">RNA</a> gelten die Chargaff-Regeln nicht.<a href="#cite_note-Nikolaou2006-3">[3]</a> Wacław Szybalski zeigte in den 1960er Jahren, dass in den Genomen von manchen <a href="Bakteriophagen" title="Bakteriophagen">Bakteriophagen</a> deutlich mehr A und G als C und T vorkommen.<a href="#cite_note-Szybalski1966-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cristillo1998-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bell1999-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lao2000-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erste_Paritätsregel">Erste Paritätsregel</h3></div>

%A = %T und %G = %C<a href="#cite_note-Chargaff1952-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zweite_Paritätsregel">Zweite Paritätsregel</h3></div>

%A ≈ %T und %G ≈ %C, bei jedem der beiden Einzelstränge.<a href="#cite_note-Rudner1968-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhang2003-10">[10]</a>

Eine Gültigkeit der zweiten Paritätsregel wurde auch für <a href="Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">Codons</a> postuliert:<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>

Codons mit T.. sind paritätisch mit Codons mit ..A

Codons mit C.. sind paritätisch mit Codons mit ..G

Codons mit .T. sind paritätisch mit Codons mit .A.

Codons mit .C. sind paritätisch mit Codons mit .G.

Codons mit ..T sind paritätisch mit Codons mit A..

Codons mit ..C sind paritätisch mit Codons mit G..

Relative Anteile (%) der Nukleinbasen in DNA verschiedener Arten<a href="#cite_note-Bansal2003-12">[12]</a> Ein Verhältnis, das vom 1:1-Verhältnis abweicht, deutet auf einzelsträngige DNA hin, z. B. beim Bakteriophagen φX174.

<th align="left">Organismus</th>

<th>%AT

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>55,2

</td></tr>

<td>54,0

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Kraken" title="Kraken">Kraken</a></td>

<td>64,8

</td></tr>

<td>56,4

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Wanderratte" title="Wanderratte">Wanderratte</a></td>

<td>57,0

</td></tr>

<td><a href="Mensch" title="Mensch">Mensch</a></td>

<td>59,3

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Grash%C3%BCpfer" title="Grashüpfer">Grashüpfer</a></td>

<td>58,6

</td></tr>

<td><a href="Seeigel" title="Seeigel">Seeigel</a></td>

<td>64,9

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Weizen" title="Weizen">Weizen</a></td>

<td>54,4

</td></tr>

<td><a href="Backhefe" title="Backhefe">Backhefe</a></td>

<td>64,4

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>48,3

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>

<ul><li>Szybalski W, Kubinski H, Sheldrick P: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Pyrimidine clusters on the transcribing strands of DNA and their possible role in the initiation of RNA synthesis</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Cold Spring Harbor NY Symp. Quant Biol</cite>. 31. Jahrgang, 1966, S. 123–127, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101/SQB.1966.031.01.019">10.1101/SQB.1966.031.01.019</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4966069?dopt=Abstract">PMID 4966069</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Pyrimidine+clusters+on+the+transcribing+strands+of+DNA+and+their+possible+role+in+the+initiation+of+RNA+synthesis&rft.au=Szybalski+W%2C+Kubinski+H%2C+Sheldrick+P&rft.btitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+NY+Symp.+Quant+Biol&rft.date=1966&rft.doi=10.1101%2FSQB.1966.031.01.019&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=123-127&rft.pmid=4966069&rft.volume=31.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </li>

<li>Lobry JR: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Asymmetric substitution patterns in the two DNA strands of bacteria</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Mol. Biol. Evol.</cite> 13. Jahrgang, Nr. 5, 1996, S. 660–665, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025626">10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025626</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8676740?dopt=Abstract">PMID 8676740</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Asymmetric+substitution+patterns+in+the+two+DNA+strands+of+bacteria&rft.au=Lobry+JR&rft.date=1996&rft.doi=10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a025626&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=Mol.+Biol.+Evol.&rft.pages=660-665&rft.pmid=8676740&rft.volume=13.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </li>

<li>Lafay B, Lloyd AT, McLean MJ, Devine KM, Sharp PM, Wolfe KH: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Proteome composition and codon usage in spirochaetes: species-specific and DNA strand-specific mutational biases</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Nucleic Acids Res</cite>. 27. Jahrgang, Nr. 7, 1999, S. 1642–1649, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/nar%2F27.7.1642">10.1093/nar/27.7.1642</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10075995?dopt=Abstract">PMID 10075995</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC148367/">PMC 148367</a> (freier Volltext) – (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Proteome+composition+and+codon+usage+in+spirochaetes%3A+species-specific+and+DNA+strand-specific+mutational+biases&rft.au=Lafay+B%2C+Lloyd+AT%2C+McLean+MJ%2C+...&rft.date=1999&rft.doi=10.1093%2Fnar%2F27.7.1642&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=7&rft.jtitle=Nucleic+Acids+Res&rft.pages=1642-1649&rft.pmc=148367&rft.pmid=10075995&rft.volume=27.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </li>

<li>McLean MJ, Wolfe KH, Devine KM: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Base composition skews, replication orientation, and gene orientation in 12 prokaryote genomes</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">J Mol Evol</cite>. 47. Jahrgang, Nr. 6, 1998, S. 691–696, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00006428">10.1007/PL00006428</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9847411?dopt=Abstract">PMID 9847411</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Base+composition+skews%2C+replication+orientation%2C+and+gene+orientation+in+12+prokaryote+genomes&rft.au=McLean+MJ%2C+Wolfe+KH%2C+Devine+KM&rft.date=1998&rft.doi=10.1007%2FPL00006428&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=J+Mol+Evol&rft.pages=691-696&rft.pmid=9847411&rft.volume=47.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </li>

<li>McInerney JO: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Replicational and transcriptional selection on codon usage in Borrelia burgdorferi</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Proc Natl Acad Sci USA</cite>. 95. Jahrgang, Nr. 18, 1998, S. 10698–10703, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.18.10698">10.1073/pnas.95.18.10698</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9724767?dopt=Abstract">PMID 9724767</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC27958/">PMC 27958</a> (freier Volltext) – (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Replicational+and+transcriptional+selection+on+codon+usage+in+Borrelia+burgdorferi&rft.au=McInerney+JO&rft.date=1998&rft.doi=10.1073%2Fpnas.95.18.10698&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=18&rft.jtitle=Proc+Natl+Acad+Sci+USA&rft.pages=10698-10703&rft.pmc=27958&rft.pmid=9724767&rft.volume=95.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </li>

<li>Albrecht-Buehler G: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Asymptotically increasing compliance of genomes with Chargaff’s second parity rules through inversions and inverted transpositions</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Proc Natl Acad Sci USA</cite>. 103. Jahrgang, Nr. 47, 2006, S. 17828–17833, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605553103">10.1073/pnas.0605553103</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17093051?dopt=Abstract">PMID 17093051</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1635160/">PMC 1635160</a> (freier Volltext) – (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Asymptotically+increasing+compliance+of+genomes+with+Chargaff%E2%80%99s+second+parity+rules+through+inversions+and+inverted+transpositions&rft.au=Albrecht-Buehler+G&rft.date=2006&rft.doi=10.1073%2Fpnas.0605553103&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=47&rft.jtitle=Proc+Natl+Acad+Sci+USA&rft.pages=17828-17833&rft.pmc=1635160&rft.pmid=17093051&rft.volume=103.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/GenomeAtlas/">CBS Genome Atlas Database</a><a href="#cite_note-Hallin2004-13">[13]</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tubic.tju.edu.cn/zcurve/">The Z curve database of genomes</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhang2003-10">[10]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-Elson1952-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Elson1952_1-0">↑</a> Elson D, Chargaff E: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">On the deoxyribonucleic acid content of sea urchin gametes</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Experientia</cite>. 8. Jahrgang, Nr. 4, 1952, S. 143–145, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02170221">10.1007/BF02170221</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14945441?dopt=Abstract">PMID 14945441</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=On+the+deoxyribonucleic+acid+content+of+sea+urchin+gametes&rft.au=Elson+D%2C+Chargaff+E&rft.date=1952&rft.doi=10.1007%2FBF02170221&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Experientia&rft.pages=143-145&rft.pmid=14945441&rft.volume=8.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a> Mitchell D, Bridge R: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">A test of Chargaff’s second rule</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Biochem Biophys Res Commun</cite>. 340. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 2006, S. 90–94, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.11.160">10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.11.160</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16364245?dopt=Abstract">PMID 16364245</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=A+test+of+Chargaff%E2%80%99s+second+rule&rft.au=Mitchell+D%2C+Bridge+R&rft.date=2006&rft.doi=10.1016%2Fj.bbrc.2005.11.160&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Biochem+Biophys+Res+Commun&rft.pages=90-94&rft.pmid=16364245&rft.volume=340.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Nikolaou2006-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Nikolaou2006_3-0">↑</a> Nikolaou C, Almirantis Y: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Deviations from Chargaff’s second parity rule in organellar DNA. Insights into the evolution of organellar genomes</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Gene</cite>. 381. Jahrgang, 2006, S. 34–41, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2006.06.010">10.1016/j.gene.2006.06.010</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16893615?dopt=Abstract">PMID 16893615</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Deviations+from+Chargaff%E2%80%99s+second+parity+rule+in+organellar+DNA.+Insights+into+the+evolution+of+organellar+genomes&rft.au=Nikolaou+C%2C+Almirantis+Y&rft.btitle=Gene&rft.date=2006&rft.doi=10.1016%2Fj.gene.2006.06.010&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=34-41&rft.pmid=16893615&rft.volume=381.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Szybalski1966-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Szybalski1966_4-0">↑</a> Szybalski W, Kubinski H, Sheldrick O: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Pyrimidine clusters on the transcribing strand of DNA and their possible role in the initiation of RNA synthesis</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol</cite>. 31. Jahrgang, 1966, S. 123–127, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101/SQB.1966.031.01.019">10.1101/SQB.1966.031.01.019</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4966069?dopt=Abstract">PMID 4966069</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Pyrimidine+clusters+on+the+transcribing+strand+of+DNA+and+their+possible+role+in+the+initiation+of+RNA+synthesis&rft.au=Szybalski+W%2C+Kubinski+H%2C+Sheldrick+O&rft.btitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Symp+Quant+Biol&rft.date=1966&rft.doi=10.1101%2FSQB.1966.031.01.019&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=123-127&rft.pmid=4966069&rft.volume=31.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Cristillo1998-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Cristillo1998_5-0">↑</a> Cristillo AD: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Characterization of G0/G1 switch genes in cultured T lymphocytes</cite>. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada 1998 (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.au=Cristillo+AD&rft.btitle=Characterization+of+G0%2FG1+switch+genes+in+cultured+T+lymphocytes&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Kingston%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pub=Queen%E2%80%99s+University" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bell1999-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Bell1999_6-0">↑</a> Bell SJ, Forsdyke DR: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Deviations from Chargaff’s second parity rule correlate with direction of transcription</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">J Theor Biol</cite>. 197. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 1999, S. 63–76, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006/jtbi.1998.0858">10.1006/jtbi.1998.0858</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10036208?dopt=Abstract">PMID 10036208</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Deviations+from+Chargaff%E2%80%99s+second+parity+rule+correlate+with+direction+of+transcription&rft.au=Bell+SJ%2C+Forsdyke+DR&rft.date=1999&rft.doi=10.1006%2Fjtbi.1998.0858&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=J+Theor+Biol&rft.pages=63-76&rft.pmid=10036208&rft.volume=197.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lao2000-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Lao2000_7-0">↑</a> Lao PJ, Forsdyke DR: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Thermophilic Bacteria Strictly Obey Szybalski’s Transcription Direction Rule and Politely Purine-Load RNAs with Both Adenine and Guanine</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Genome</cite>. 10. Jahrgang, Nr. 2, 2000, S. 228–236, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.10.2.228">10.1101/gr.10.2.228</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10673280?dopt=Abstract">PMID 10673280</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC310832/">PMC 310832</a> (freier Volltext) – (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Thermophilic+Bacteria+Strictly+Obey+Szybalski%E2%80%99s+Transcription+Direction+Rule+and+Politely+Purine-Load+RNAs+with+Both+Adenine+and+Guanine&rft.au=Lao+PJ%2C+Forsdyke+DR&rft.date=2000&rft.doi=10.1101%2Fgr.10.2.228&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Genome&rft.pages=228-236&rft.pmc=310832&rft.pmid=10673280&rft.volume=10.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Chargaff1952-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Chargaff1952_8-0">↑</a> Chargaff E, Lipshitz R, Green C: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Composition of the deoxypentose nucleic acids of four genera of sea-urchin</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">J Biol Chem</cite>. 195. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, 1952, S. 155–160, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14938364?dopt=Abstract">PMID 14938364</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Composition+of+the+deoxypentose+nucleic+acids+of+four+genera+of+sea-urchin&rft.au=Chargaff+E%2C+Lipshitz+R%2C+Green+C&rft.date=1952&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=J+Biol+Chem&rft.pages=155-160&rft.pmid=14938364&rft.volume=195.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rudner1968-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Rudner1968_9-0">↑</a> R Rudner, JD Karkas, E Chargaff: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Separation of B. Subtilis DNA into complementary strands. 3. Direct analysis</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic"><a href="Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></cite>. 60. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, 1968, S. 921–2, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.60.3.921">10.1073/pnas.60.3.921</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4970114?dopt=Abstract">PMID 4970114</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC225140/">PMC 225140</a> (freier Volltext) – (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Separation+of+B.+Subtilis+DNA+into+complementary+strands.+3.+Direct+analysis&rft.au=R%26%2332%3BRudner%2C%26%2332%3BJD%26%2332%3BKarkas%2C%26%2332%3BE%26%2332%3BChargaff&rft.date=1968&rft.doi=10.1073%2Fpnas.60.3.921&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.pages=921-2&rft.pmc=225140&rft.pmid=4970114&rft.volume=60.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Zhang2003-10">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang2003_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang2003_10-1">b</a> Zhang CT, Zhang R, Ou HY: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">The Z curve database: a graphic representation of genome sequences</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Bioinformatics</cite>. 19. Jahrgang, Nr. 5, 2003, S. 593–599, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics%2Fbtg041">10.1093/bioinformatics/btg041</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12651717?dopt=Abstract">PMID 12651717</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=The+Z+curve+database%3A+a+graphic+representation+of+genome+sequences&rft.au=Zhang+CT%2C+Zhang+R%2C+Ou+HY&rft.date=2003&rft.doi=10.1093%2Fbioinformatics%2Fbtg041&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=Bioinformatics&rft.pages=593-599&rft.pmid=12651717&rft.volume=19.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a> Perez, J.-C.: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Codon populations in single-stranded whole human genome DNA are fractal and fine-tuned by the Golden Ratio 1.618</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Interdisciplinary Sciences: Computational Life Science</cite>. 2. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, September 2010, S. 228–240, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12539-010-0022-0">10.1007/s12539-010-0022-0</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20658335?dopt=Abstract">PMID 20658335</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=Codon+populations+in+single-stranded+whole+human+genome+DNA+are+fractal+and+fine-tuned+by+the+Golden+Ratio+1.618&rft.au=Perez%2C+J.-C.&rft.date=2010-09&rft.doi=10.1007%2Fs12539-010-0022-0&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Interdisciplinary+Sciences%3A+Computational+Life+Science&rft.pages=228-240&rft.pmid=20658335&rft.volume=2.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bansal2003-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Bansal2003_12-0">↑</a> Bansal M: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">DNA structure: Revisiting the Watson-Crick double helix</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Current Science</cite>. 85. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, 2003, S. 1556–1563 (englisch, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140726025011/http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/7173/1/dna.pdf">eprints.iisc.ernet.in</a> (<a href="Webarchivierung#Begrifflichkeiten" title="Webarchivierung">Memento</a> des <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r250917974">

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</style><a class="external text" href="https://redirecter.toolforge.org/?url=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.iisc.ernet.in%2F7173%2F1%2Fdna.pdf">Originals</a> vom 26. Juli 2014 im <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>) [abgerufen am 6. Januar 2015]).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=DNA+structure%3A+Revisiting+the+Watson-Crick+double+helix&rft.au=Bansal+M&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=11&rft.jtitle=Current+Science&rft.pages=1556-1563&rft.volume=85.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Hallin2004-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Hallin2004_13-0">↑</a> Hallin PF, David Ussery D: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">CBS Genome Atlas Database: A dynamic storage for bioinformatic results and sequence data</cite>. In: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Bioinformatics</cite>. 20. Jahrgang, Nr. 18, 2004, S. 3682–3686, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics%2Fbth423">10.1093/bioinformatics/bth423</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15256401?dopt=Abstract">PMID 15256401</a> (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Chargaff-Regeln&rft.atitle=CBS+Genome+Atlas+Database%3A+A+dynamic+storage+for+bioinformatic+results+and+sequence+data&rft.au=Hallin+PF%2C+David+Ussery+D&rft.date=2004&rft.doi=10.1093%2Fbioinformatics%2Fbth423&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=18&rft.jtitle=Bioinformatics&rft.pages=3682-3686&rft.pmid=15256401&rft.volume=20.+Jahrgang" style="display:none">

</li>

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